Journal articles: 'Windhoek College of Education. Educational leadership Education Teachers' – Grafiati (2024)

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Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to report on an investigation into the perceived prevalence of authentic leadership behaviours in Sixth Form College (SFC) Principals. This research compares four different models of institutional leadership and considers which are viewed by teachers as the more common in daily practice. In doing so, the research will also touch upon the relevance of values in contemporary educational leadership. Design/methodology/approach – The research methodology adopted a mixed methods approach that elicited the views of teachers using a structured questionnaire approach together with co-constructed conversations with participants. The research involved 53 teachers from five SFCs spread across England. Findings – The findings generated from this research exercise suggest that college Principals exhibit transactional behaviours far more often than those actions associated with either transformational, distributed or authentic leadership models. This outcome may be explained in terms of the pressures acting on SFCs in an increasingly competitive and uneven education market. In short, Principals act pragmatically and instrumentally to achieve their short-term goals. Originality/value – This work follows on from previous research into servant leadership in the SFC sector. This is a sector of the English education system that attracts little coverage in the academic literature as research tends to be undertaken in the much larger schools or General Further Education sectors. Given this context, the paper represents an useful starting point for further research.

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Networked global learning communities build partnership programs between higher education institutions and high schools which allow students, teachers and professors to attend and work in college preparation programs located in countries outside of their native lands. These educational programs help to promote development of transnational policies and procedure reforms to provide access to universities in other countries, as well as provide exposure to global learning strategies, structures, and emerging technologies among teachers and educational leadership. Transnational High School-University Bridge programs also allow the student to adjust to a new culture and work to improve their second language skills, while potentially earning college credit in a dual credit, high school environment.

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Des English was a person of great charm, innovation, and inner strength. His early death at the age of 44 in 1977 came as a bitter blow not only for his family but for the many teachers and parents he had influenced and guided in respectively providing and in seeking educational opportunities for children with disabilities. Des grew up in a small town in Victoria called Donnybrook, north of Melbourne. He was educated by the Marist Brothers at Kilmore College, and in the 50’s trained as a primary teacher at Geelong Teachers College, from which he gained an extension of one year to study as a Special Teacher at Melbourne Teachers College. His first appointment was as an Opportunity Grade teacher at North Melbourne State School. His talent for leadership surfaced early and in his second appointment he became Principal of Footscray Special School for children and adolescents with intellectual disability. Throughout the rest of his career he gained one promotion after another to the Principal positions at Ormond, Travencore and St. Alban’s Special schools. I was fortunate to work as a deputy principal with him throughout his last two appointments.

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Khushal Khan Khattak believed that the meaning of education is hidden in the training of individuals. He considers this training important for him from childhood to his death. Moreover, he feels free from the boundary walls of a school or college. In other words, he is a champion of informal education. For this purpose, he considers the entire earth as a school and all the things of the universe are teachers. In this regard Khushal's ultimate reliance is upon the character building, Development of ego/self-respect, personality development, and inclusion of Moral values, leadership training, and acquiring different skills, required for complete living. Khushal Khan Khattak’s this belief and perception of education is very much in line with the educational definitions of different eminent educations and educational objectives. This is the reason that besides his other celebrated titles he got the unique title of an educationist as well.

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Servant leadership has been one of the most preferred styles of leadership in education due to its underlying principles. This exploratory study aimed to examine the university teachers’ use of servant leadership principles by students’ reported experiences. It utilized a mixed-method approach. A questionnaire was sent to 111 college students after conducting a pilot, passing the reliability test, and applying sample size formula. The semi-structured interviews were also taken from 11 participants who were sophom*ore and junior students in the English Department, Faculty of Letters and Humanities. The data was analyzed through color-coding, thematic and statistical analyses. This study narrowed its scope by only focusing on the principles of listening, persuasion, commitment to the growth of others, and community building. It tested the correlation between these principles and examined the relationships between the reported use, gender, and schooling years. The results revealed that the practiced servant leadership principles were pretty at a high level except for the commitment to others’ growth principles (M= 3.6). It also found that gender was not a robust predisposing factor, whereas years of schooling influenced the students’ reported experiences about their teachers’ use of servant leadership in the classroom. The principles also proved to be correlated after conducting the Pearson correlation test. The study concluded with suggestions and further implications that could improve the quality of instruction in the classrooms and educational institutions. It is highly suggested to establish leadership centers in both public and private higher education institutions to provide various leadership trainings for students, teachers and staff to enhance the quality of education.

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The teacher is the transformational media of all the knowledge needed by students. In addition, the role of teachers is very much needed especially in Islamic-based schools that always pay attention and prioritize students to continue their studies in college. To get closer and to build with high enthusiasm for the achievement of the priorities above, the researcher conducted research at second grade of Elementary School in Sidoarjo by knowing more about the leadership style of the principal in improving the work ethic of Islamic Education teachers. This study is entitled "The leadership role of school principals in improving the work ethic of Islamic Religious Education teachers at second grade of Elementary School in Sidoarjo". This research is a qualitative study, through a phenomenological approach that is a qualitative research approach rooted in philosophical and psychological and focuses on human life experiences (sociology) that produce descriptive data in the form of written or oral data from observable people's behavior. The form of research is descriptive qualitative research, namely research that describes an object relating to the problem conducted without asking research variables.The results of research on the role of principals in improving the work ethic of teachers of Islamic Education are as follows: (1) as educators: principals must have the right strategy to improve the work ethic of teachers and professional educators. (2) as a manager at school: the task of the manager is to plan something that can improve the work ethic of the teachers of Islamic Education and the quality of education, in addition the manager also organizes educational resources that have not been organized in order to unite in implementing education and control the implementation of educational outcomes . (3) as a motivator: the principal has a very close relationship with various activities in the school, such as providing motivation and encouragement, so the teacher is more disciplined and has a work spirit.

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The Intercultural Development Research Association, founded in 1973, is an independent, non-profit organization whose mission is to achieve equal educational opportunity for every child through strong public schools that prepare all students to access and succeed in college. IDRA strengthens and transforms public education along six paths: fair funding, sound educational practices, valuing students, valuing educators, valuing families and systems change. The organization has done so by uniquely crossing borders of policy, research, practice and community engagement to transform education by putting children first. The following article reviews how IDRA drives critical paths to transform education. The authors tell the story of how these paths have developed over time to push for fair funding, which was IDRA’s founding issue and continues to be a central focus; promote sound educational practices through professional and curriculum development; model valuing of students particularly as demonstrated through the IDRA Valued Youth Partnership program; support educators in excelling as asset-based teachers and catalysts for student success; and focus family engagement on leadership in education for transforming policy and practice for their neighborhood public schools. These interrelated paths are woven into IDRA’s change model: The Quality Schools Action Framework. This framework is a tool for strengthening the capacity of public schools to affect systems change to graduate and prepare all students for college.

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In vocational education and training (VET) colleges worldwide, teacher teams work on innovations to improve their educational quality. To foster this process, teams benefit from team-oriented human resource management (HRM) aimed at stimulating teachers’ team learning. This qualitative study explores in-depth how team leaders enact team-oriented human resource practices and how this affects teachers’ perceptions of these practices and their engagement in team learning. Interviews with four team leaders and group interviews with 11 teachers from these four teams were conducted in one VET college in the Netherlands. The results showed that team leaders were both controlling and stimulating in their enactment. To foster team learning, it appears not just necessary that team leaders’ enactment and teachers’ perceptions of this enactment should be aligned, but that team leaders’ enactment also should be geared towards the team’s needs. This study therefore shows team leaders’ crucial role in the effective implementation of team-oriented HRM in VET colleges.

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Dear Readers, It is the great honor for us to publish seventh volume, first issue of Contemporary Educational Researches Journal. Contemporary Educational Researches Journal welcomes original empirical investigations and comprehensive literature review articles focusing on educational issues. The journal is an international peer-refereed journal that promotes the researches in the field of contemporary teaching and learning approaches and theories. The scope of the journal includes, but is not limited to; the following major topics as they relate to: Active Learning, Administration of Education, Adult Education, Affective Learning, Classroom Assessment, Classroom Management, Classroom Teacher Education, Collaborative Learning, College and Higher Education, College and Higher Education, Constructivist Learning, Content Development, Distance Learning, High School Teacher Education, History Education, Instructional Design, Learning and Teaching Research Methods, Learning Assessment and Evaluation, Learning Assessment and Evaluation, Learning Psychology, Lifelong Learning Strategies, Learning Skills, Vocational Education, Measurement and Evaluation in Education, New Learning Environments, Portfolio Assessment, Professional Development and School Administration. A causal relationship model for teachers’ organizational citizenship behaviour, administrators’ leadership in school, guidelines for educational administration, Russian regional studies as new disciplines in higher education system and ways for a better school organizational performance topics have been included into this issue. The topics of the next issue will be different. You can make sure that we will be trying to serve you with our journal with a rich knowledge in which different kinds of topics are discussed in 2017 Volume. A total number of twelve (12) manuscripts were submitted for this issue and each paper has been subjected to double-blind peer review process by the reviewers specialized in the related field. At the end of the review process, a total number of five (5) high quality research papers were selected and accepted for publication. We present many thanks to all the contributors who helped us to publish this issue. Best regards, Prof. Dr. Gulsun Atanur Baskan Editor – in Chief

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The relationship between leader and followers plays a vital role, particularly in educational institutions where a keen understanding of human character and high level of social interaction ought to be facilitated. For this reason, in stark contrast to contemporary leaders who see people only as units of production or expendable resources in a profit and loss statement, servant leadership focuses on meeting the needs of followers, making them reach their maximum potential and so perform optimally in order to achieve organizational goals and objectives. This study examines the effects of servant leadership behaviors of private college principals on teachers’ organizational citizenship behavior and job performance. Using 300 respondents from the private education institutes in Turkey, servant leadership behavior is examined for its indirect effects on organizational citizenship behavior and job performance by its impact on organizational justice. Organizational justice acts as a mediator between the variables in question. All the results are in support of the studied mediation effects. Implications of the findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.

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e4139111This article features schools and school districts with successful induction programs, all easily replicable. Increasingly, research confirms that teacher and teaching quality are the most powerful predictors of student success. In short, principals ensure higher student achievement by assuring better teaching. To do this, effective administrators have a new teacher induction program available for all newly hired teachers, which then seamlessly becomes part of the lifelong, sustained professional development program for the district or school. What keeps a good teacher are structured, sustained, intensive professional development programs that allow new teachers to observe others, to be observed by others, and to be part of networks or study groups where all teachers share together, grow together, and learn to respect each other’s work.ResumoEste artigo apresenta escolas e distritos escolares com programas bem sucedidos de indução, todos facilmente replicáveis. Cada vez mais, a pesquisa confirma que o professor e a qualidade do ensino são os mais poderosos preditores do sucesso do aluno. Em suma, os diretores garantem maior desempenho dos alunos, garantindo melhor ensino. Para fazer isso, os administradores eficazes têm um novo programa de indução de professores disponível para todos os professores recém-contratados, que então se torna parte do programa de desenvolvimento profissional sustentado ao longo da vida para o distrito ou escola. O que mantém um bom professor são programas estruturados, constantes e intensivos de desenvolvimento profissional que permitem que os novos professores observem outros, sejam observados por outros e façam parte de redes ou grupos de estudo onde todos os professores compartilham juntos, crescem juntos e aprendem a respeitar o trabalho um do outro.Tradução do original WONG, Harry K. “Induction Programs That Keep New Teachers Teaching and Improving”. NASSP Bulletin – Vol. 88 No 638 March 2004. © Harry K. Wong Publications, Inc. por Adriana Teixeira Reis.Palavras-chave: Programas de indução, Professor iniciante, Desenvolvimento profissional docente.Keywords: Induction programs, Beginner teacher, Teacher professional development.ReferencesALLINGTON, R. (2003). The six ts of effective elementary literacy instruction. Retrieved from www.readingrockets.org / article.php?ID=413.BREAUX, A., & WONG, H. (2003). New teacher induction: How to train, support, and retain new teachers. Mountain View, CA: Harry K. Wong Publications.BRITTON, E., PAINE, L., PIMM, D., & RAIZEN, S. (Eds.). (2003). Comprehensive teacher induction: Systems for early career learning. State: Kluwer Academic Publishers and WestEd.CROSS, C. T., & RIGDEN, D. W. (2002, April). Improving teacher quality [Electronic version]. American School Board Journal, 189(4), 24–27.DARLING-HAMMOND, L., & SYKES, G. (2003). Wanted: A national teacher sup- ply policy for education: The right way to meet the “highly qualified teacher” challenge. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 11(33). Retrieved from http: // epaa.asu.edu / epaa / v11n33 /DARLING-HAMMOND, L., & YOUNGS, P. (2002). Defining “highly qualified teachers”: What does scientifically-based research actually tell us? Educational Researcher, 31(9), 13–25.DEPAUL, A. (2000). Survival guide for new teachers: How new teachers can work effec- tively with veteran teachers, parents, principals, and teacher educators. Jessup, MD: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.DRUMMOND, S. (2002, April 18). What will it take to hold onto the next gen- eration of teachers? Harvard Graduate School of Education News. Retrieved from www.gse.harvard.edu / news / features / ngt04182002.htmlELMORE, R. (2002, January/ February). The limits of “change.” Harvard Education Letter. Retrieved from www.edletter.org / past / issues / 2002-jf / limitsofchange.shtmlFEIMAN-NEMSER, S. (1996). Teacher mentoring: A critical review. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and Teacher Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED397060)FULLAN, M. (2001). The new meaning of educational change (3rd ed.). New York: Teachers College Press.FULLAN, M. (2003). Change forces with a vengeance. London: Routledge Falmer.GARET, M., Porter, A., DESMOINE, L., BIRMAn, B., & KWANG, S. K. (2001). What makes professional development effective? American Educational Research Journal, 38(4), 915–946.GREENWALD, R., HEDGES, L., & LAINE, R. (1996). The effect of school resources on student achievement. Review of Educational Research, 66(3), 361–396.HANUSHEK, E. A., KAIN, J. F., & RIVKIN, S. G. (2001). Why public schools lose teachers (NBER Working Paper No. 8599). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.HARE, D., & HEAP, J. (2001). Effective teacher recruitment and retention strategies in the Midwest. Naperville, IL: North Central Regional Laboratory. Re- trieved June 26, 2002, from www.ncrel.org / policy/ pubs / html / strategy/ index.htmlHASSEL, E. (1999). Professional development: Learning from the best. Naperville, IL: North Central Regional Educational Laboratory.HIEBERT, H., GALLIMORE, R., & STIGLER, J. (2002). A knowledge base for the teaching profession: What would it look like and how can we get one? Educational Researcher, 31(5), 3–15.JOHNSON, S., & BIRKELAND, S. (2003). Pursuing a sense of success: New teach- ers explain their career decisions. American Educational Research Journal, 40(3), 581–617.JOHNSON, S. M., & KARDOS, S. M. (2002). Keeping new teachers in mind. Educational Leadership, 59(6), 13–16.KARDOS, S. (2003, April). Integrated professional culture: Exploring new teachers’ experiences in 4 states. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL.LEHMAN, P. (2003, November 26). Ten steps to school reform at bargain prices. Education Week, 23(13), 36, 28.LIU, E. (2003, April). New teachers’ experiences of hiring: Preliminary findings from a 4-state study. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL.MARTIN, S. (2003, March). From the ground up: Building your own university. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development, San Francisco, CA.NORTH CAROLINA TEACHING FELLOWS COMMISSION. (1995). Keeping talented teach- ers. Raleigh, NC: Public School Forum of North Carolina.PALOMBO, M. (2003). A network that puts the net to work. Journal of Staff Development, 24(1), 24–28.ROTHMAN, R. (2002 / 2003). Transforming high schools into small learning communities. Challenge Journal, 6(2), 1–8.SANDERS, W. (1996). Cumulative and residual effects of teachers on future student academic achievement. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Value-Added Research & Assessment Center.SAPHIER, J., FREEDMAN, S., & ASCHHEIM, B. (2001). Beyond mentoring: How to nurture, support, and retain new teachers. Newton, MA: Teachers21.SCHLAGER, M., FUSCO, J., KOCH, M., CRAWFORD, V., & PHILLIPS, M. (2003, July). Designing equity and diversity into online strategies to support new teachers. Paper presented at the National Educational Computing Conference (NECC), Seattle, WA.SERPELL, Z., & BOZEMAN, L. (1999). Beginning teacher induction: A report of beginning teacher effectiveness and retention. Washington, DC: National Partnership for Excellence and Accountability in Teaching.WONG, H. (2001, August 8). Mentoring can’t do it all. Education Week, 20(43), pp. 46, 50.WONG, H. (2002a). Induction: The best form of professional development. Educational Leadership, 59(6), 52–55.WONG, H. (2002b). Play for keeps. Principal Leadership, 3(1), 55–58.WONG, H. (2003a). Collaborating with colleagues to improve student learn- ing. ENC Focus, 11(6), 9.WONG, H. (2003b, October). Induction: How to train, support, and retain new teachers. Paper presented at the conference of the National Staff Development Council.WONG, H. (2003c). Induction programs that keep working. In M. Scherer (Ed.), Keeping good teachers ( pp. 42–49). Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development.WONG, H., & ASQUITH, C. (2002). Supporting new teachers. American School Board Journal, 189(12), p. 22.YOUNGS, P. (2003). State and district policies related to mentoring and new teacher induction in Connecticut. New York: National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future.

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A decade ago, access to technology was limited and wiring schools was one of the nation's highest education priorities (NCREL, 2005). Ten years of substantial investments have vastly improved this picture. According to the Secretary's Fourth Annual Report on Teacher Quality, virtually every school with access to computers has Internet access (99%), compared to only 35 percent of schools in 1994, according to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (Parsad & Jones, 2005). The Office of Technology Assessment report to Congress in 1995 stated that "Technology is not central to the teacher preparation experience in most colleges of education. most new teachers graduate from teacher preparation institutions with limited knowledge of the ways technology can be used in their professional practice" (Office of Technology Assessment, 1995). The report, in which this statement appeared, titled Teachers and Technology: Making the Connection, was a wake-up call, and over the past years, much remunerative progress has been made. Many states are attempting to address educators technology skills through the creation of teacher or administrator standards that include technology; as of 2003, 40 states and the District of Columbia have such standards (Ansell & Park, 2003). A number of states have adopted technology requirements for initial licensure. For example, 13 states require teachers and/or administrators to complete technology-related coursework, and nine require them to pass technology-related assessments. In addition, a number of states have implemented policies to improve veteran teachers technological skills (Ansell &Park, 2003). Addressing the issues of technology integration into the curriculum, the Maryland State Department of Educations (MSDE) PT3 consortium infused technology into the state's teacher education programs in three ways. First, the consortium used the Maryland Teacher Technology Standards to redesign both arts and sciences and education courses so they incorporate technology-related knowledge and skills. The Maryland Teacher Technology Standards included learning outcomes and, core learning goals and skills for success; it also specifies what students in pre-kindergarten through 12th grade need to know and be able to do in English/Language Arts, mathematics, science, and social studies. The Maryland State Department of Education (1999) provided expectations for how technology can and should be used to support student learning and instruction. Second, the group developed performance assessments in order to measure the technological competence of teacher candidates. Third, the consortium developed a system for electronic portfolios that incorporates a student teacher's technology performance assessment. These portfolios can be made available to future employers to demonstrate technology-related proficiency. The consortium is statewide and diverse, including several public universities and two communities. According to a report titled, Tech-Savvy: Educating Girls in the New Computer Age (AAUW, 2000), Washington, DC; as violent electronic games and dull programming classes turn off increasing numbers of adolescent girls, the way information technology is used, applied, and taught in the nations classrooms must change. Furthermore, commensurate with rapid changes in technology, a remarkably consistent picture emerges: more boys than girls experience an early, passionate attachment to computers, whereas for most girls attachment is subdued. Margolis and Fisher (2002) reported that computing is claimed as male territory very early in life: from early childhood through college, computing is both actively claimed as guy stuff by boys and men and passively ceded by girls and women. Society and culture have linked interest and success with computers to boys and men. In the words of Margolis and Fisher (2002), curriculum, teachers expectations, and culture reflect boys pathways into computing, accepting both assumptions of male excellence and womens deficiencies in the field (p. 4). Social expectations towards educational leadership in academic and economics terms depend on the integration of technology in every facet of society. The American family survival depends on the abilities and incomes of all adults. The type of technical skills needed to be creative and to survive in the job market escalates daily. Educational leaders must be aware that gender equity among middle school students with respect to the use of computer technology should be grounded in the development of programs that not only address the educational aspect of schools, but also allow students to develop their appreciation for, and understanding of the interrelationship among computer usage, careers, and values. With the implementation of such programs, schools could operate as equalizers for the sexes regarding computer competency and attitudes. Educational leaders have the ability to direct resources to show how computer technology may release the creative impulse in children and allow them to think and learn. Educators need to link the curriculum and technology with student interests. Both male and female students use computer applications that can be linked to the educational setting, such as word processing, Internet, completing homework, reports, and projects, as well as communication through email, self-expression, and personal interest. Educators who are developing these programs must understand how girls lose interest in technology and recognize the different learning styles of each gender. The role of training district school teachers to effectively utilize computer technology within the classroom is important if strides are to be made in supporting girls and women in choosing computer-related careers and using computers as a medium of expression. Institutions of higher education would provide opportunities and hold the responsibility of reviewing the technical construction of each teachers plan. Educational leaders will meet frequently with university representatives to review, discuss, record experiences, develop, modify, and evaluate plans and performances to ensure that teachers receive the training necessary to instruct all students utilizing appropriate computer technology. Degree attainment, certification, and re-certification should be linked to the variation of experiences, the structure, depth, detail, and impact of the program developed by the practitioner in consultation with representatives from higher education and the school district. Partnerships with local school districts and institutions of higher learner should be established to develop programs, which incorporate many of the tenets discussed above.

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The Status of Women in Leadership Tahani H. Alqahtani PhD student, Management at Aberdeen University – Lecturer, College of Economics and Administrative Sciences at Imam Mohamed Ibn Saud University. Abstract Even though females have indeed entered jobs previously closed to them, many occupations remain as gender-gapped now as they were half a century ago. Gender-segregated employment patterns are so tenacious because, they are built into the very organizational fabric of work and the workplace. Descriptive stereotyping describes what men and women are like and prescriptive stereotyping defines defining what women and men should be like. This literature review provides a broad understanding of the gender differences in leadership and the gender gap in organization. This literature review founds that gender-segregated employment patterns are so tenacious because they are built into the very organizational fabric of work and the workplace. Introduction The current literature concerning leadership from a variety of Eastern and Western countries highlights that, regardless of a recent global increase in the number of females entering the labour market, only a small number of professional women hold top management or leadership positions. In spite of the fact that the growth pattern of women in the labour force and their representation in leadership roles does differ across countries and regions, and although a number of women in leadership positions worldwide are making contributions both within and beyond their communities (Percupchick, 2011), the overarching observation can be made that a substantive gender gap exists in female’s representation in relation to leadership positions and decision-making across many sectors of society (Catalyst, 2016). Moreover, studies indicate that a large number of sometimes highly qualified women are choosing to step down from positions of authority and leave their careers (Rabas, 2013). This literature review provides a broad understanding of the gender differences in leadership and the gender gap in organization. Literature Review Research has identified the reasons for the persistence of women having a less expressive presence in management and leadership positions (Acker, 1991; Kolb et al., 1998; Simpson, 2004; Williams, 2001; England, 2010; Kellerman and Rhodes, 2014; Gipson, et al., 2017). Among these, the existence of a male-normed corporate culture and organizational structure is posited as a formidable obstacle to female progress in the workplace. The literature abounds with evidence of the way organizational norms, values and structures, disadvantage females in their career advancement at the institutional level (Morrison, 2012; Keohane, 2014). Looking specifically at the field of academia, for Nguyen (2012), “Policies and process in higher education can act as barriers against women assuming leadership and management positions” (p. 127). Acker (1990) suggests the existence of an organizational attitude behind these gender contrasts as a result of organizational structure, rather than any differences held to exist in the characters of males and females. Goveas and Aslam (2011, p. 236) state that a further important factor with the potential to hinder female's opportunities for development consists of “the unavailability of structured human resource policies and strategies addressing women workers, [which] has proven to be a major obstacle to women’s progress and development”. Referring specifically to the field of educational management, for Sui Chu Ho (2015), “Gender inequalities in staff recruitment, appointment and promotion exist in educational institutions, such as universities” (p. 87). She goes on to note how this evidence and claim to support it are actually routinely dismissed, both by those in authority and the general public. It is likely that hierarchal organizational structures create a setting in which women feel out of place due to gender variances (Morrison, 2012; Al-Shanfari, 2011; Keohane, 2014), resulting in many females stepping down or leaving from a post in a workplace at which their leadership abilities are being questioned. This conflict is further compounded by many jobs being designed around men’s objectives, and that many organizations are reluctant to support women within their workforce when potential career conflicts arise (Kellerman, and Rhode, 2012). Therefore, the ideal worker is male: “Images of men’s bodies and masculinity pervade organizational processes, marginalizing women and contributing to the maintenance of gendered segregation in organisations” (Acker 1990, p. 139). A key impact of organizational masculinity is the emotional labor expended by women in order to succeed. Connell (1987) states that gendered structures and practices operating within organizations result in very different career experiences and outcomes for women and men, and the most senior organizational positions are considered sites of hegemonic masculinity. Thus, organizational structure is not gender neutral and organizational culture reflects the wishes and needs of powerful men. In reviews of research into gender and leadership, limiting women’s progress in organizations is a well-documented phenomenon, including the persistence of gender stereotypes. Kanter (1977) identifies the ‘masculine ethic’ as part of the early image of leaders and managers. This masculine ethic elevates the traits assumed to be exclusive to men as requirements for effective management: a tough-minded approach to problems; analytical planning abilities; a capacity to set aside personal emotional considerations in the interests of task accomplishment; and cognitive superiority in problem-solving and decision-making (Kanter, 1977). Thus, even with regards to Kanter, (1977), although social construction presumes that these traits and characteristics supposedly belong to males only (or are at least more likely to be held by males), if practically all leaders and managers are men from the beginning, it should come as no surprise that when females attempt to enter leadership or management occupations the masculine ethic is invoked as an exclusionary principle Acker (1991) sees the ‘masculine ethic’ referred to earlier as the structural basis of organizations, in the sense that allegedly ‘masculine characteristics’ are built into the very fabric of organizations. As a result, the workplace itself is stacked against the equalization of opportunities for women. Acker (1991, p. 289) defines gendered organizations as occurring when “advantage and drawback, control and exploitation, emotion and action, identity and meaning, are patterned through and in terms of a distinction between female and male, feminine and masculine”. Thus, masculinity assumes control of the workplace environment or the business sphere in the subtlest of ways (Acker, 1991). Additionally, masculinity also appears to affect employees’ characters. The preferred employee presents her/himself as a masculine character in choice of clothes, language, and presentation (Acker, 1991). Furthermore, job opportunities and hierarchies are also filled in accordance with gender preferences, meaning that the positions should concur with what is deemed relevant and suitable for the gender that fills them (Kolb et al., 1998). In this way, gender implications have negatively influenced the progress of women in their working lives (Acker, 1991). Informal occupational segregation due to gender stereotypes as well as the gender biases commonly held by the wider society entail the trend of hiring women and men in different types of working areas and positions (Fitzsimmons, Callan, and Paulsen, 2014). Simpson (2004) argues that gender representation in social discourse and social perceptions of gender play a significant role in sustaining and promoting gendered employment. Consequently, these biased stereotypes, embedded in deep-rooted ideologies, automatically view job placement through the lens of gender (Simpson, 2004). Thus, work related to masculine organizations draws on the notion of a job requiring allegedly masculine qualities such as analytical skills, assertiveness and physical strength, in turn reinforcing more the idea of being ‘manliness’ being something distinct and unattainable for women. Unsurprisingly, as Britton and Logan (2008) note, these jobs, in turn, naturally attract more male applicants than females. At the same time, stereotypical assumptions that females pay more attention to detail, are more caring, and place value on physical attractiveness confine them to roles as teachers, nurses, administrators, and jobs in the beauty industry (Britton and Logan, 2008). Moreover, men are more likely to be selected for any ‘male-type’ position in a company even when women and men possess the same qualifications because of the implicit bias that, like for like, men perform better than women (Omar and Davidson, 2001). This leads individuals to believe that women do not have the necessary skills and so are unable to work effectively in male-type jobs. For example, because women are associated with activities that do not involve much in the way of physical strength (such as taking care of their children and families), they have traditionally been considered a second choice to men when it comes to jobs that involve working outdoors (Britton and Logan, 2008). England’s (2010) research has shown that in the twentieth century women have progressed at a sluggish pace in terms of workplace equality. Despite the fact that females have indeed entered jobs previously closed to them, many occupations remain as gender-gapped now as they were half a century ago. Moreover, she notes that at any level of the employment pyramid, females continue to lag behind males in terms of authority and pay, regardless of the closing gap between men and women in workplace seniority and educational attainment. Acker (1990) argues that such gender segregated employment patterns are so tenacious because, as noted, they are built into the very organizational fabric of work and the workplace. Stereotyping means generalizing behavioural characteristics of groups of individuals and then applying the generalization to people who are members of the group (Heilman, 2012). Recently, researchers have investigated gender stereotyping by dividing the generalizations into two properties, descriptive and prescriptive. Heilman (2012) concentrated on the importance of each of those properties. Descriptive stereotyping describes what men and women are like and prescriptive stereotyping defines defining what women and men should be like. For instance, descriptive stereotyping of women creates negative expectations about a woman’s performance as a leader owing to there is a lack of fit between the characteristics assigned to traditionally male leadership roles and the societal roles assigned to females. Prescriptive stereotypes, or ascribing behaviors women ought to emulate, and the agentic characteristics of leadership create an incongruity with expected women behavior (Wynen et al., 2014). Furthermore, Heilman argues that irrespective of whether gender stereotyping is prescriptive or descriptive, the practice impedes the progress of females into leadership roles. One source for gender inequalities in the work force is gender stereotyping in the form of occupational segregation (Wynen et al., 2014). Occupational segregation occurs because there is a separation of women or men in certain occupations or employment sectors (Wynen et al., 2014). This gender separation is seen in occupations such as doctors , nursing, lawyers and teaching. Often, teachers or nurses are portrayed as women, while, lawyers and doctors are portrayed as men. According to scholars in social role theory, such as Franke, Crown, and Spake (1997) and Eagly (1987) gender stereotyping in certain occupations is deeply inherent in societal roles for female and male. Although both women and men have been shown to exhibit biases toward women in high management positions (Eagly and Carli, 2007; Ellemers, Rink, Derks, and Ryan, 2012; Ryan et al., 2011), Ellemers et al. (2012) pointed out that most individuals prefer to believe in a just world where gender differentiation is rare and success is based on merit; thus, in most instances, they will treat allegations of unequal treatment unfavourably. This result lead to fewer reports for fear of negative repercussions, and consequently inequity is often not noticed, challenged, or addressed (Ellemers et al., 2012). Moreover, Ibarra et al (2013) believe that when organizations advise females to seek leadership positions without addressing the subtle biases that exist in practices and policies, the companies undermine the psychological development that should take place to become a leader. Conclusion In conclusion, this literature review has outlined how women face obstacles in different organizational context, limiting their ability to achieve empowerment by aspiring to and achieving leadership. Historically, certain factors have hindered women from being accepted as leaders, regardless of their achievements, which leads to an underestimation of their capabilities. This under-representation of qualified women in leadership roles is symbolic of the gender gap in the workplace.

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OBJECTIVES/SPECIFIC AIMS: Our Goal is to enroll 500 students over 10 years into the CTSI 500 Stars Initiative. Student family members and community members are essential to career achievement and success; as such, the program also engages student families, along with key community members, as part of an Advisory Group, throughout the entire student experience. Besides programmatic and planning activities, students, family, and community members participate in our CTSI Community Engagement Science Café monthly series, where students may also present on a number of research and health-related topics of interest. The Advisory Group meets every 3–4 months in ensuring continuous engagement and overall program success. METHODS/STUDY POPULATION: Our Initiative takes both direct and supportive roles in offering 2 educational and training pathways; namely, our Summer Internship Program (6–8 wk duration) and our Students Modeling a Research Topic (SMART) Year-round Education Program (usually offered in Fall and Spring academic semesters) for high school students only. In the SMART Teams program, we work with regional public and private school districts to train science teachers, and assist them in developing and/or enhancing their science curriculum, thus creating pathways towards careers in translational science settings. Our aim is that students who participate in the year-round program (along with additional students) subsequently participate in our summer program. Therefore, overall program engagement is continuous throughout the year. In Summer, 2017 we engaged with well-established regional partners and collaborators (CTSI affiliated numerous public school districts, and community-based organizations) to move the translational workforce along existing regional diversity education and training pipelines. A Kick-off event was held on June 15, 2107 and attended by students and family members. We offered 6–8 weeks of hands-on experiences working with faculty researcher mentors and their research teams conducting real-life studies, in addition to professional experiences in research “support” settings, as well as in the community. We also developed established a “Summer” SMART (Students Modeling a Research Topic) Teams Program and a Summer “Advanced” SMART Teams Program, where a number of students were placed at 2 CTSI partner and collaborator institutions. The primary goal of the SMART Teams experience is to introduce students to translational science by building upon laboratory research to better understand clinical and community impact of disease within a patient population. Overall, internship sites included research labs, protein modeling labs, numerous research support settings, clinical care settings, and community sites for those students who were interested in population health sciences. In addition, students were offered career enrichment and professional development lunch and learn sessions, career panel sessions presented by long term, expert professionals in various fields translational science, and confidence building and networking sessions. Students also participated in a community volunteer day activity, a trip to the Chicago Science Museum, and numerous CTSI engagement activities (Science Cafés, simulation lab tours, etc.). RESULTS/ANTICIPATED RESULTS: The 2018 year-round program will initiate in the Fall. Our 2017 Summer Internship Program received 192 students/trainees applications of whom 133 were underrepresented minorities (URMs). We enrolled 109 participants, including 83 URMs (84 high school students and 25 college students). A total of 53 Wisconsin high schools and 19 colleges and universities (local and out of state) participated. Students engaged in all activities as outlined in the Methods section. At the end of the summer program, students created and presented posters as part of the closing ceremony. Certificates of completion were given to the students by program leadership and the Al Hurvis/ADAMM leadership (program funding agency). Students wore white lab coats to create an atmosphere of cohesion and accomplishment. Parents and other family members attended the closing ceremony, demonstrating strong support for students and the program. Our anticipated results for CTSI 500 Stars Initiative is to increase diversity in the Translational Science Workforce via education and training of 500 high school and college students over 10 years. We will also remain engaged and track student’s various venues for at least 10 years to determine the outcome of their experiences towards careers in Translational Science settings. We will continue to engage community members and community-based organizations as collaborators and advisors to participate in every stage of our activities. Moreover, we plan to broaden our reach by establishing additional relationships with additional high schools and middle schools to further enhance the 500 Stars Initiative. In addition, we will develop metrics by which to measure the validity and success of our program. DISCUSSION/SIGNIFICANCE OF IMPACT: The aim of the CTSI 500 Stars Initiative is to provide real-life, practical experiences in translational science settings as a part of our efforts to train and cultivate the translational science workforce, while also engaging patients, families and community members in every phase of the translational process. Targeting under-represented minority students contributes towards increasing diversity in the workforce. It is also our hope that by increasing URMs in the workforce, there will be positive impact on communities of color, with respect to increasing participation in their health care decision making and in clinical/translational research; thus, ultimately leading to better health outcomes in the communities we live and serve. Our overall framework is to engage, educate, enrich, empower, elevate, enable students towards careers in clinical and translational settings.

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Abstrak: Secara umum penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan tentang kepemimpinan kepala sekolah perempuan di SMP Kristen Palangka Raya. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian kualitatif dengan rancangan studi kasus. Prosedur pengumpulan data menggunakan observasi, wawancara mendalam dan studi dokumentasi. Analisis data menggunakan pola interaktif data. Pengecekan keabsahan data dilakukan dengan metode triangulasi dan member check. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa efektivitas kepemimpinan dalam mewujudkan sekolah efektif bukan ditentukan oleh karakteristik gender. Kunci keberhasilan kepala sekolah perempuan dalam mewujudkan sekolah efektif ditentukan oleh kemampuannya dalam merancang dan merealisasikan visi dan misi serta tujuan sekolah serta kemampuanya dalam mengelola sekolah dengan efektif melalui pendayagunaan seluruh potensi yang dimiliki sekolah serta jalinan kerjasama yang sinergis dengan stakeholders sekolah. Abstract: In general, this study aims to describe the leadership of the female school principal at Palangka Raya Christian Middle School. This research is a qualitative research with a case study design. Data collection procedures using observation, in-depth interviews and study of documentation. Data analysis using interactive data patterns. Data validity was checked by triangulation and member check methods. The results showed that the effectiveness of leadership in realizing effective schools was not determined by gender characteristics. The key to the success of female school principals in realizing an effective school is determined by their ability to design and realize the vision and mission and goals of the school as well as their ability to manage schools effectively through the utilization of all the potential of the school as well as synergistic collaboration with school stakeholders. References: Fadhli, M. (2016). Kepemimpinan Kepala Sekolah yang Efektif dalam Menciptakan Sekolah Efektif. Jurnal Tarbiyah, 23(1), 23-44. Fauzuddin. (2011). Kepemimpinan Transformasional Kepala Sekolah. Disertasi tidak dipublikasikan. Universitas Negeri Malang: Program Pascasarjana Universitas Negeri Malang. Diterima dari http://repository.um.ac.id/63845/. Growe, R., & Montgomery, P. (2000). Women and the Leadership Paradigm: Bridging the Gender Gap. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242783132_ Women_and_the_leadership_paradigm_bridging_the_gender_gap. Handayani, T. (2005). Konsep dan Teknik Penelitian Gender. Malang: Universitas Negeri Malang. Kartono, K. (2002). Pemimpin dan Kepemimpinan: Apakah Pemimpin Abnormal Itu?. Jakarta: CV. Rajawali. Komariah, A., & Triatna, C. (2010). Visionary Leadershp Menuju Sekolah Efektif. Bandung. Bumi Aksara. Kristiyanti, E. I., & Muhyadi. (2015). Jurnal Akuntabilitas Manajemen Pendidikan, 3(1), 37-49. doi: https://doi.org/10.21831/amp.v3i1.6270. Kunandar. 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05–466Cheng Pui-Wah, Doris (Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong, China; doris@ied.edu.hk) & Philip Stimpson, Articulating contrasts in kindergarten teachers' implicit knowledge on play-based learning. International Journal of Educational Research (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 41.4–5 (2005), 339–352.05–467Collins, Fiona M. (Roehampton U, London, UK; f.collins@roehampton.ac.uk), ‘She's sort of dragging me into the story!’ Student teachers' experiences of reading aloud in Key Stage 2 classes. Literacy (Oxford, UK) 39.1 (2005), 10–17.05–468Fischl, Dita (Kaye College for Teacher Education, Israel) & Shifra Sagy, Beliefs about teaching, teachers and schools among pre-service teachers: the case of Israeli-Bedouin students. Language, Culture and Curriculum (Clevedon, UK) 18.1 (2005), 59–71.05–469Gamliel, Eyal & Liema Davidovitz (Ruppin Academic Center, Israel; eyalg@ruppin.ac.il), Online versus traditional teaching evaluation: mode can matter. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education (Abingdon, UK) 30.6 (2005), 581–592.05–470Gebhard, Jerry G. (Indiana U of Pennsylvania, USA), Awareness of teaching through action research: examples, benefits, limitations. JALT Journal (Tokyo, Japan) 27.1 (2005), 53–69.05–471Gillies, Robyn M. (U of Queensland, Australia; r.gillies@uq.edu.au), The effects of communication training on teachers' and students' verbal behaviours during cooperative learning. International Journal of Educational Research (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 41.3 (2005), 257–279.05–472Grugeon, Elizabeth (De Montfort U, Bedford, UK; egrugeon@dmu.ac.uk), Listening to learning outside the classroom: student teachers study playground literacies. Literacy (Oxford, UK) 39.1 (2005), 3–9.05–473Harfitt, Gary & Nicole Tavares (U of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; gharfitt@hkucc.hku.hk), Obstacles as opportunities in the promotion of teachers' learning. International Journal of Educational Research (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 41.4–5 (2005), 353–366.05–474Hosie, Peter (Curtin U of Technology, Australia; Peter.Hosie@cbs.curtin.edu.au), Renato Schibeci & Ann Backhaus, A framework and checklists for evaluating online learning in higher education. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education (Abingdon, UK) 30.5 (2005), 539–553.05–475Katyal, Kokila & Colin Evers (U of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; kkatyal@hkusua.hku.hk), Teacher leadership and autonomous student learning: adjusting to the new realities. International Journal of Educational Research (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 41.4–5 (2005), 367–382.05–476Kwo, Ora W. Y. (U of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; wykwo@hku.hk), Understanding the awakening spirit of a professional teaching force. International Journal of Educational Research (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 41.4–5 (2005), 292–306.05–477Lewis, Ramon (La Trobe U, Melbourne, Australia), Shlomo Romi, Xing Qui & Yaacov J. Katz, Teachers' classroom discipline and student misbehavior in Australia, China and Israel. Teaching and Teacher Education21.6 (2005), 729–741.05–478Ogier, John (U of Canterbury, New Zealand; john.ogier@canterbury.ac.nz), Evaluating the effect of a lecturer's language background on a student rating of teaching form. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education (Abingdon, UK) 30.5 (2005), 477–488.05–479Orland-Barak, Lily (The U of Haifa, Israel) & Hayuta Yinon, Different but similar: student teachers' perspectives on the use of L1 in Arab and Jewish EFL classroom settings. Language, Culture and Curriculum (Clevedon, UK) 18.1 (2005), 91–113.05–480Pearson, Sue (Leeds U, UK; S.E.Pearson@education.leeds.ac.uk) & Gary Chambers, A successful recipe? Aspects of the initial training of secondary teachers of foreign languages. Support for Learning (Oxford, UK) 20.3 (2005), 115–122.05–481Perry, Bill & Timothy Stewart (Kumamoto U, Japan; perry@kumamoto-u.ac.jp), Insights into effective partnership in interdisciplinary team teaching. System (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 33.4 (2005), 563–573.05–482Ricketts, Chris (Plymouth U, UK; C.Ricketts@plymouth.ac.uk) & Stan Zakrzewski, A risk-analysis approach to implementing web-based assessment. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education (Abingdon, UK) 30.6 (2005), 603–620.05–483Tajino, Akira (Kyoto U, Japan) & Craig Smith, Exploratory practice and Soft Systems Methodology. Language Teaching Research (London, UK) 9.4 (2005), 448–469.05–484Wu, Zongjie (Zhejiang U, China; zongjiewu@zju.edu.cn), Being, understanding and naming: teachers' life and work in harmony. International Journal of Educational Research (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 41.4–5 (2005), 307–323.05–485Zeegers, Margaret (U of Ballarat, Australia), English community school teacher education and English as a second language in Papua New Guinea: a study of a practicum. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education (London, UK) 33.2 (2005), 135–146.

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This article explores the theme of collaboration in relation to biochemist Rupert Sheldrake’s concept of morphogenic fields. We contend that this idea, with its emphasis on the role of resonance in generating self-organising systems and cooperative action, has application for our research into the culture and educational experiences of Australian travelling communities. One of the emerging trends within cultural studies has been an engagement with the concepts generated from new scientific philosophies such as chaos and complexity theory. One such scientific concept is Sheldrake’s concept of morphogenic fields, which he sees as being present in biological processes, governing the behaviour of species. Such fields possess very little energy, but are able to absorb energy from other sources (for example, by sensing the presence of gravity) and shape it, so as to transform a physical system from chaotic disorder to dynamic order. The field acts as a geometric influence that generates resonances that affect the behaviour of a species in other sites, such that morphogenic fields are built up through the accumulated behaviour of species’ members (Sheldrake 60). As information systems theorist Margaret Wheatley comments of Sheldrake’s idea, “After part of the species has learned a behaviour, such as bicycle riding, others will find it easier to learn that skill” (51). We argue that the principle of morphogenic fields can help to make sense of work within a cultural field such as academia. In this case we can relate it to our research into Australian travelling communities, such as the circus and travelling showmen. There are particular implications drawn from the concept of morphogenic fields that seem especially significant in considering the practice of collaborative research. Here we focus specifically on the idea that a group of practitioners can absorb energy from other sites in order to self-organise into a dynamic partnership—that is, that the acquisition of the skills of collaborative partnerships is made easier for one group when another has already acquired those skills. In relation to this idea, research into collaborative or cooperative communities is well established but an emerging area of interest that is an extension of this field relates to collaboration between groups from different organisations. The focus on collaborative efforts between entities that represent different systems highlights an exponential increase in both possibilities and problems. As Moriarty has demonstrated, when groups from two different organisations collaborate, ethical and political dimensions become important considerations impacting on the degree of success of the partnership. The focus in this paper, however, is on the possibilities, rather than the problems. We take a step back and look at how the energy behind a productive group or system emerges and then influences the new partnership. In the case of this collaboration between our research team and the show and circus groups, the emergence of a resonant relationship happened through three stages, analogous to the way in which within physical systems the morphogenic field enacts its influence at different levels. In the first stage, happenstance played a part in the emergence of a Traveller education research group at Central Queensland University (CQU). At the same time as the then Dean of Education was encouraging greater research productivity within the former College of Advanced Education by suggesting the formation of collaborative teams, the agricultural show was on in the local area. This circ*mstance sparked a ‘corridor discussion’ speculating on how the show children were schooled, providing the impetus for the formation of a research collaboration that has continued for 15 years. The second stage involved the forging of links between this research team and the travelling communities. The process of attaining ethical clearance, making contact with the communities, and arranging semi-structured interviews was part of this process. In the case of the travelling show community, these interviews coincided with a period when members of the community, particularly mothers, were coming together to seek mechanisms for improving the school opportunities for their children. While established traditions of home tutoring, correspondence classes, and boarding schools had provided some level of educational access for show children, the long-term uncertainties of the business, and the increasing emphasis on formal education as a pathway to maximising life opportunities, helped to generate a determination within the show community to seek other options. Through a process of consultation with teachers and educational bureaucrats and lobbying of different levels of government, the community succeeded in having established a dedicated travelling school taught through specialised state-of-the-art classrooms transported on semi-trailers. Thus the Queensland School for Travelling Show Children (QSTSC) was launched as a joint federal and state initiative in 2000. The excitement of these moves within the community to improve their educational outcomes communicated itself to the university research team, who at the same time were generating links with international scholars in Traveller education. One of these, a former head of an Irish Traveller school in Dublin, has conducted research with the CQU team and conducted interviews with the QSTSC. Thus we can see how the energy within one site has communicated itself within another, such as to generate collaborative resonances beginning at the local level and extending internationally. The third stage of this collaborative process has been marked by the principal of the QSTSC co-writing academic papers with the CQU research team. Likewise, a leading member of the circus community has run workshops for academics and teachers, showcasing the role of circus tricks as pedagogical instruments. We contend that the concept of morphogenic fields offers rich possibilities for making sense of such collaborative enterprises. In its focus on such procedures as happenstance, self-generating mechanisms, absorption of energy flows, and the influence of one site within a field upon another, morphogenic fields offer a vision of collaboration that extends beyond observations of others’ practices and immersion in their world. Happenstance played a role in the CQU research team coming together at the same time that the show community was becoming particularly concerned with greater options in schooling. These groups have self-organised in response to particular needs: to increase research performance, on the one hand, and to agitate for improved educational access, on the other. The energy generated by the show community in its lobbying for a dedicated school has certainly provided impetus for the research group, while the international collaborations emerging within this research context have helped energise members of the show school in seeking opportunities to make themselves felt within the field of academia. Indeed, there has been a blending of the fields of academia and of occupational Travellers as they play off the resonances that each has generated. Certainly many aspects of our approach to researching Traveller education have been learned from, and made easier to practise by, interacting with Travellers and have extended our thinking and skill base—in this case in relation to negotiation and expanding collaborations with other groups with separate but shared interests. This kind of skill acquisition is more than the observation and immersion highlighted by conventional pedagogical models; it is also facilitated by the morphogenic resonance arising from interactions among groups with such common interests. At the same time, while crucial elements of these collaborations have been intuitive, serendipitous, and unconscious, it is important to note that both the Travellers and we have engaged in systematic reflection, decision-making, and strategic planning about their and our respective directions. Deviating from the ‘norm’ of permanent residence, the show and circus people have had to devise ways of identifying, lobbying, and communicating effectively with policy-makers with the power to create new structures for the provision of schooling. In doing so, they have highlighted the education of occupational Travellers as a morphogenic field—possessing very little energy in its own right, precisely because it is marginalised from the power of the educational centre or mainstream, it has had to absorb energy from, and to attain resonance with, representatives of that centre or mainstream. “Riding waves of resonance” is thus an appropriate metaphor for this particular ‘take’ on collaboration. In particular, both the Travellers and the researchers can be likened to surfers expending and expanding energy as they interact with the far more powerful ocean and sustaining other members of the surfing community and themselves as they do so. So too the Travellers and the researchers absorb energy from one another and others and self-organise in further dynamic and resonant collaborations and partnerships. References Moriarty, Beverley. “Inter-systemic Research and Collaboration: Ethical and Political Dimensions and Elements of Risk Among Cooperative Communities.” Strategic Uncertainties: Ethics, Politics and Risk in Contemporary Educational Research. Eds. Phyllida Coombes, Mike Danaher, and Patrick Alan Danaher. Flaxton: Post Pressed, 2004. 143-154. Sheldrake, Rupert. A New Science of Life. Los Angeles: Jeremy Tarcher, 1981. Wheatley, Margaret. Leadership and the New Science: Learning about Organisation from an Orderly Universe. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 1992. Citation reference for this article MLA Style Danaher, Geoff, Beverley Moriarty, and P.A. Danaher. "Riding Waves of Resonance: Morphogenic Fields and Collaborative Research with Australian Travelling Communities." M/C Journal 9.2 (2006). echo date('d M. Y'); ?> <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0605/06-danahermoriarty.php>. APA Style Danaher, G., B. Moriarty, and P. Danaher. (May 2006) "Riding Waves of Resonance: Morphogenic Fields and Collaborative Research with Australian Travelling Communities," M/C Journal, 9(2). Retrieved echo date('d M. Y'); ?> from <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0605/06-danahermoriarty.php>.

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Abstract:

This paper will compare the metaphoric structuring of the ecological concept of resilience—with its roots in Holling's 1973 paper; with psychological concepts of resilience which followed from research—such as Werner, Bierman, and French and Garmezy and Streitman) published in the early 1970s. This metaphoric analysis will expose the difference between complex adaptive systems models of resilience in ecology and studies related to resilience in relation to climate change; compared with the individualism of linear equilibrium models of resilience which have dominated discussions of resilience in psychology and economics. By examining the ontological commitments of these competing metaphors, I will show that the individualistic concept of resilience which dominates psychological discussions of resilience is incompatible with the ontological commitments of ecological concepts of resilience. Because the ontological commitments of the concepts of ecological resilience on the one hand, and psychological resilience on the other, are so at odds with one another, it is important to be clear which concept of resilience is being evaluated for its adequacy as a concept. Having clearly distinguished these competing metaphors and their ontological commitments, this paper will show that it is the complex adaptive systems model of resilience from ecology, not the individualist concept of psychological resilience, that has been utilised by both the academic discussions of adaptation to climate change, and the operationalisation of the concept of resilience by social movements like the permaculture, ecovillage, and Transition Towns movements. Ontological Metaphors My analysis of ontological metaphors draws on insights from Kuhn's (114) account of gestalt perception in scientific paradigm shifts; the centrality of the role of concrete analogies in scientific reasoning (Masterman 77); and the theorisation of ontological metaphors in cognitive linguistics (Gärdenfors). Figure 1: Object Ontological commitments reflect the shared beliefs within a community about the sorts of things that exist. Our beliefs about what exists are shaped by our sensory and motor interactions with objects in the physical world. Physical objects have boundaries and surfaces that separate the object from not-the-object. Objects have insides and outsides, and can be described in terms of more-or-less fixed and stable “objective” properties. A prototypical example of an “object” is a “container”, like the example shown in Figure 1. Ontological metaphors allow us to conceive of “things” which are not objects as if they were objects by picking “out parts of our experience and treat them as [if they were] discrete entities or substances of a uniform kind” (Lakoff and Johnson 25). We use ontological metaphors when we imagine a boundary around a collection of things, such as the members of a team or trees in a forest, and conceive of them as being in a container (Langacker 191–97). We can then think of “things” like a team or forest as if they were a single entity. We can also understand processes and activities as if they were things with boundaries. Whether or not we characterise some aspect of our experience as a noun (a bounded entity) or as a verb (a process that occurs over time) is not determined by the nature of things in themselves, but by our understanding and interpretation of our experience (Langacker 233). In this paper I employ a technique that involves examining the details of “concrete images” from the source domains for metaphors employed in the social sciences to expose for analysis their ontological commitments (Harrison, “Politics” 215; Harrison, “Economics” 7). By examining the ontological metaphors that structure the resilience literature I will show how different conceptions of resilience reflect different beliefs and commitments about the sorts of “things” there are in the world, and hence how we can study and understand these “things.” Engineering Metaphors In his discussion of engineering resilience, Holling (“Engineering Vs. Ecological” 33) argues that this conception is the “foundation for economic theory”, and defined in terms of “resistance to disturbance and the speed of return to the equilibrium” or steady state of the system. Whereas Holling takes his original example of the use of the engineering concept of resilience from economics, Pendall, Foster, & Cowell (72), and Martin-Breen and Anderies (6) identify it as the concept of resilience that dominates the field of psychology. They take the stress loading of bridges to be the engineering source for the metaphor. Figure 2: Pogo stick animation (Source: Blacklemon 67, CC http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pogoanim.gif). In order to understand this metaphor, we need to examine the characteristics of the source domain for the metaphor. A bridge can be “under tension, compression or both forces at the same time [and] experiences what engineers define as stress” (Matthews 3). In order to resist these forces, bridges need to be constructed of material which “behave much like a spring” that “strains elastically (deforms temporarily and returns to its original shape after a load has been removed) under a given stress” (Gordon 52; cited in Matthews). The pogostick shown in Figure 2 illustrates how a spring returns to its original size and configuration once the load or stress is removed. WGBH Educational Foundation provides links to simple diagrams that illustrate the different stresses the three main designs of bridges are subject to, and if you compare Computers & Engineering's with Gibbs and Bourne's harmonic spring animation you can see how both a bridge under live load and the pogostick in Figure 2 oscillate just like an harmonic spring. Subject to the elastic limits of the material, the deformation of a spring is proportional to the stress or load applied. According to the “modern theory of elasticity [...] it [is] possible to deduce the relation between strain and stress for complex objects in terms of intrinsic properties of the materials it is made of” (“Hooke’s Law”). When psychological resilience is characterised in terms of “properties of individuals [that] are identified in isolation” (Martin-Breen and Anderies 12); and in terms of “behaviours and attributes [of individuals] that allow people to get along with one another and to succeed socially” (Pendall, Foster, and Cowell 72), they are reflecting this engineering focus on the properties of materials. Martin-Breen and Anderies (42) argue that “the Engineering Resilience framework” has been informed by ontological metaphors which treat “an ecosystem, person, city, government, bridge, [or] society” as if it were an object—“a unified whole”. Because this concept of resilience treats individuals as “objects,” it leads researchers to look for the properties or characteristics of the “materials” which individuals are “made of”, which are either elastic and allow them to “bounce” or “spring” back after stress; or are fragile and brittle and break under load. Similarly, the Designers Institute (DINZ), in its conference on “Our brittle society,” shows it is following the engineering resilience approach when it conceives of a city or society as an object which is made of materials which are either “strong and flexible” or “brittle and fragile”. While Holling characterises economic theory in terms of this engineering metaphor, it is in fact chemistry and the kinetic theory of gases that provides the source domain for the ontological metaphor which structures both static and dynamic equilibrium models within neo-classical economics (Smith and Foley; Mirowski). However, while springs are usually made out of metals, they can be made out of any “material [that] has the required combination of rigidity and elasticity,” such as plastic, and even wood (in a bow) (“Spring (device)”). Gas under pressure turns out to behave the same as other springs or elastic materials do under load. Because both the economic metaphor based on equilibrium theory of gases and the engineering analysis of bridges under load can both be subsumed under spring theory, we can treat both the economic (gas) metaphor and the engineering (bridge) metaphor as minor variations of a single overarching (spring) metaphor. Complex Systems Metaphors Holling (“Resilience & Stability” 13–15) critiques equilibrium models, arguing that non-deterministic, complex, non-equilibrium and multi-equilibrium ecological systems do not satisfy the conditions for application of equilibrium models. Holling argues that unlike the single equilibrium modelled by engineering resilience, complex adaptive systems (CAS) may have multi or no equilibrium states, and be non-linear and non-deterministic. Walker and Salt follow Holling by calling for recognition of the “dynamic complexity of the real world” (8), and that “these [real world] systems are complex adaptive systems” (11). Martin-Breen and Anderies (7) identify the key difference between “systems” and “complex adaptive systems” resilience as adaptive capacity, which like Walker and Salt (xiii), they define as the capacity to maintain function, even if system structures change or fail. The “engineering” concept of resilience focuses on the (elastic) properties of materials and uses language associated with elastic springs. This “spring” metaphor emphasises the property of individual components. In contrast, ecological concepts of resilience examine interactions between elements, and the state of the system in a multi-dimensional phase space. This systems approach shows that the complex behaviour of a system depends at least as much on the relationships between elements. These relationships can lead to “emergent” properties which cannot be reduced to the properties of the parts of the system. To explain these relationships and connections, ecologists and climate scientists use language and images associated with landscapes such as 2-D cross-sections and 3-D topology (Holling, “Resilience & Stability” 20; Pendall, Foster, and Cowell 74). Figure 3 is based on an image used by Walker, Holling, Carpenter and Kinzig (fig. 1b) to represent possible states of ecological systems. The “basins” in the image rely on our understanding of gravitational forces operating in a 3-D space to model “equilibrium” states in which the system, like the “ball” in the “basin”, will tend to settle. Figure 3: (based on Langston; in Walker et al. fig. 1b) – Tipping Point Bifurcation Wasdell (“Feedback” fig. 4) adapted this image to represent possible climate states and explain the concept of “tipping points” in complex systems. I have added the red balls (a, b, and c to replace the one black ball (b) in the original which represented the state of the system), the red lines which indicate the path of the ball/system, and the black x-y axis, in order to discuss the image. Wasdell (“Feedback Dynamics” slide 22) takes the left basin to represents “the variable, near-equilibrium, but contained dynamics of the [current] glacial/interglacial period”. As a result of rising GHG levels, the climate system absorbs more energy (mostly as heat). This energy can force the system into a different, hotter, state, less amenable to life as we know it. This is shown in Figure 3 by the system (represented as the red ball a) rising up the left basin (point b). From the perspective of the gravitational representation in Figure 3, the extra energy in the basin operates like the rotation in a Gravitron amusem*nt ride, where centrifugal force pushes riders up the sides of the ride. If there is enough energy added to the climate system it could rise up and jump over the ridge/tipping point separating the current climate state into the “hot earth” basin shown on the right. Once the system falls into the right basin, it may be stuck near point c, and due to reinforcing feedbacks have difficulty escaping this new “equilibrium” state. Figure 4 represents a 2-D cross-section of the 3-D landscape shown in Figure 3. This cross-section shows how rising temperature and greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in a multi-equilibrium climate topology can lead to the climate crossing a tipping point and shifting from state a to state c. Figure 4: Topographic cross-section of possible climate states (derived from Wasdell, “Feedback” 26 CC). As Holling (“Resilience & Stability”) warns, a less “desirable” state, such as population collapse or extinction, may be more “resilient”, in the engineering sense, than a more desirable state. Wasdell (“Feedback Dynamics” slide 22) warns that the climate forcing as a result of human induced GHG emissions is in fact pushing the system “far away from equilibrium, passed the tipping point, and into the hot-earth scenario”. In previous episodes of extreme radiative forcing in the past, this “disturbance has then been amplified by powerful feedback dynamics not active in the near-equilibrium state [… and] have typically resulted in the loss of about 90% of life on earth.” An essential element of system dynamics is the existence of (delayed) reinforcing and balancing causal feedback loops, such as the ones illustrated in Figure 5. Figure 5: Pre/Predator model (Bellinger CC-BY-SA) In the case of Figure 5, the feedback loops illustrate the relationship between rabbit population increasing, then foxes feeding on the rabbits, keeping the rabbit population within the carrying capacity of the ecosystem. Fox predation prevents rabbit over-population and consequent starvation of rabbits. The reciprocal interaction of the elements of a system leads to unpredictable nonlinearity in “even seemingly simple systems” (“System Dynamics”). The climate system is subject to both positive and negative feedback loops. If the area of ice cover increases, more heat is reflected back into space, creating a positive feedback loop, reinforcing cooling. Whereas, as the arctic ice melts, as it is doing at present (Barber), heat previously reflected back into space is absorbed by now exposed water, increasing the rate of warming. Where negative feedback (system damping) dominates, the cup-shaped equilibrium is stable and system behaviour returns to base when subject to disturbance. [...]The impact of extreme events, however, indicates limits to the stable equilibrium. At one point cooling feedback loops overwhelmed the homeostasis, precipitating the "snowball earth" effect. […] Massive release of CO2 as a result of major volcanic activity […] set off positive feedback loops, precipitating runaway global warming and eliminating most life forms at the end of the Permian period. (Wasdell, “Topological”) Martin-Breen and Anderies (53–54), following Walker and Salt, identify four key factors for systems (ecological) resilience in nonlinear, non-deterministic (complex adaptive) systems: regulatory (balancing) feedback mechanisms, where increase in one element is kept in check by another element; modularity, where failure in one part of the system will not cascade into total systems failure; functional redundancy, where more than one element performs every essential function; and, self-organising capacity, rather than central control ensures the system continues without the need for “leadership”. Transition Towns as a Resilience Movement The Transition Town (TT) movement draws on systems modelling of both climate change and of Limits to Growth (Meadows et al.). TT takes seriously Limits to Growth modelling that showed that without constraints in population and consumption the world faces systems collapse by the middle of this century. It recommends community action to build as much capacity as possible to “maintain existence of function”—Holling's (“Engineering vs. Ecological” 33) definition of ecological resilience—in the face of failing economic, political and environmental systems. The Transition Network provides a template for communities to follow to “rebuild resilience and reduce CO2 emissions”. Rob Hopkins, the movements founder, explicitly identifies ecological resilience as its central concept (Transition Handbook 6). The idea for the movement grew out of a project by (2nd year students) completed for Hopkins at the Kinsale Further Education College. According to Hopkins (“Kinsale”), this project was inspired by Holmgren’s Permaculture principles and Heinberg's book on adapting to life after peak oil. Permaculture (permanent agriculture) is a design system for creating agricultural systems modelled on the diversity, stability, and resilience of natural ecosystems (Mollison ix; Holmgren xix). Permaculture draws its scientific foundations from systems ecology (Holmgren xxv). Following CAS theory, Mollison (33) defines stability as “self-regulation”, rather than “climax” or a single equilibrium state, and recommends “diversity of beneficial functional connections” (32) rather than diversity of isolated elements. Permaculture understands resilience in the ecological, rather than the engineering sense. The Transition Handbook (17) “explores the issues of peak oil and climate change, and how when looked at together, we need to be focusing on the rebuilding of resilience as well as cutting carbon emissions. It argues that the focus of our lives will become increasingly local and small scale as we come to terms with the real implications of the energy crisis we are heading into.” The Transition Towns movement incorporate each of the four systems resilience factors, listed at the end of the previous section, into its template for building resilient communities (Hopkins, Transition Handbook 55–6). Many of its recommendations build “modularity” and “self-organising”, such as encouraging communities to build “local food systems, [and] local investment models”. Hopkins argues that in a “more localised system” feedback loops are tighter, and the “results of our actions are more obvious”. TT training exercises include awareness raising for sensitivity to networks of (actual or potential) ecological, social and economic relationships (Hopkins, Transition Handbook 60–1). TT promotes diversity of local production and economic activities in order to increase “diversity of functions” and “diversity of responses to challenges.” Heinberg (8) wrote the forward to the 2008 edition of the Transition Handbook, after speaking at a TotnesTransition Town meeting. Heinberg is now a senior fellow at the Post Carbon Institute (PCI), which was established in 2003 to “provide […] the resources needed to understand and respond to the interrelated economic, energy, environmental, and equity crises that define the 21st century [… in] a world of resilient communities and re-localized economies that thrive within ecological bounds” (PCI, “About”), of the sort envisioned by the Limits to Growth model discussed in the previous section. Given the overlapping goals of PCI and Transition Towns, it is not surprising that Rob Hopkins is now a Fellow of PCI and regular contributor to Resilience, and there are close ties between the two organisations. Resilience, which until 2012 was published as the Energy Bulletin, is run by the Post Carbon Institute (PCI). Like Transition Towns, Resilience aims to build “community resilience in a world of multiple emerging challenges: the decline of cheap energy, the depletion of critical resources like water, complex environmental crises like climate change and biodiversity loss, and the social and economic issues which are linked to these. […] It has [its] roots in systems theory” (PCI, “About Resilience”). Resilience.org says it follows the interpretation of Resilience Alliance (RA) Program Director Brian Walker and science writer David Salt's (xiii) ecological definition of resilience as “the capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and still retain its basic function and structure.“ Conclusion This paper has analysed the ontological metaphors structuring competing conceptions of resilience. 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